Likes abundant moisture at the roots, if grown in drier areas it must be given a deep moist soil. Tolerates poor peaty soils. Succeeds in wet, cold, poor and shallow soils. Trees have succeeded on pure chalk when on a north facing hollow deep in beech woods. Prefers a pH between 4 to 6. Dislikes shade. Intolerant of atmospheric pollution. Very tolerant of exposure, resisting salt laden gales, though trees are not very wind firm in shallow soils. A long-lived tree, with specimens 700 - 800 years old being recorded. It is slow growing for its first two or three years, though it soon becomes an extremely fast growing tree and is very widely planted for timber in Britain and other temperate areas. Even trees 30 metres tall are increasing in height by 1 metre a year. New growth takes place from May to July or August and some very vigorous trees will produce a second flush of growth until September. Although the dormant tree is very cold-hardy, growth can be severely checked if the trees are growing in a frost hollow, because the young shoots are very susceptible to damage by late frosts. In Britain the best stands are produced in the sheltered valleys of W. Scotland. Trees are unsurpassed for rapid volume wood production in cool wet mountain sites on blanket peat in W. Britain. In areas with cool wet summers (1200mm of rain per year) it makes a huge specimen tree. Trees should be planted into their permanent positions when they are quite small, between 30 and 90cm. Larger trees will check badly and hardly put on any growth for several years. This also badly affects root development and wind resistance. In some upland areas, especially over granitic or other base-poor soils, growth rate and health have been seriously affected by aluminium poisoning induced by acid rain. Plants are strongly outbreeding, self-fertilized seed usually grows poorly. They hybridize freely with other members of this genus. Many trees do not bear female flowers in most years. Subject to damage by the green spruce aphid, trees are also often attacked by a bark beetle and so should be kept away from more valuable plantings. A biological control for the bark beetle is being introduced (1990).

Young shoots - raw. Young male catkins - raw or cooked. Used as a flavoring. Immature female cones - cooked. The central portion, when roasted, is sweet and syrupy. The cones are 6 - 10cm long. Inner bark - raw or cooked. It can be dried, ground into a powder and then used as a thickener in soups etc or added to cereals when making bread. The inner bark was usually harvested in the spring, though it was also sometimes taken in the summer. An emergency food, it is only used when all else fails. Seed - raw. The seed is about 2 - 4mm long. It is rich in fats and has a pleasant slightly resinous flavor but is too small and fiddly to be worthwhile unless you are desperate. A refreshing tea, rich in vitamin C, can be made from the young shoot tips. A gum obtained from the bark is hardened in cold water and then used for chewing. It should be aged for 3 days or more before using it. The best gum is obtained from the southern side of the tree.

Seed - stratification will probably improve germination so sow fresh seed in the autumn in a cold frame if possible. Sow stored seed as early in the year as possible in a cold frame. A position in light shade is probably best. Seed should not be allowed to dry out and should be stored in a cool place. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and grow them on in the greenhouse or cold frame for their first winter. They can be planted out into their permanent positions in early summer of the following year, or be placed in an outdoor nursery bed for a year or so to increase in size. They might need protection from spring frosts. Cuttings of semi-ripe terminal shoots, 5 - 8cm long, August in a frame. Protect from frost. Forms roots in the spring. Cuttings of mature terminal shoots, 5 - 10cm long, September/October in a cold frame. Takes 12 months. Cuttings of soft to semi-ripe wood, early summer in a frame. Slow but sure.

Moist, sandy, often swampy soils, occasionally on wet rocky slopes in the far north of its range. Alluvial soils from sea level to 300 metres, usually close to the coast.